¹ Deutsch, Karl, Burrell, Sidney A., Kann, Robert A., Lee, Maurice Jr., Lichterman, Martin, Lindgren, Raymond E., Loewenheim, Francis L., and VanWagenen, Richard W., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957Google Scholar).

² Adler, Emanuel, “Europe's New Security Order: A Pluralistic Security Community,” in Crawford, Beverly, ed., The Future of European Security (Berkeley: University of California, 1992), 287–326Google Scholar; Adler, , “Seasons of Peace: Progress in Postwar International Security,” Adler, and Crawford, , eds., Progress in Postwar International Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 133–34Google Scholar; Katzenstein, Peter, ed., The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996Google Scholar); Morgan, Patrick, “Multilateralism and Security: Prospects in Europe,” in Ruggie, John, ed., Multilateralism Matters (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 327–64Google Scholar; Weber, Steve, “Shaping the Postwar Balance of Power: Multilateralism in NATO,” in Ruggie, John, ed., Multilateralism Matters (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 233–92Google Scholar; and Schroeder, Paul, “The New World Order: A Historical Perspective,” Washington Quarterly 17 (1994), 25–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁴ Deutsch, et al. , Political Community, 6Google Scholar.

⁵ Ibid., see also the following works by Deutsch: Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1953)Google Scholar; Political Community at the International Level: Problems of Measurement and Definition (New York: Doubleday, 1954)Google Scholar; Politics and Government (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970)Google ScholarPubMed; and his essays in Jacob, Philip E. and Toscano, James V., eds., The Integration of Political Communities (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1964Google Scholar): “Communication Theory and Political Integration,” 46–74, “Transaction Flows as Indicators of Political Cohesion,” 75–97, “The Price of Integration,” 143–78, and “Integration and the Social System,” 179–208.

⁶ Deutsch et al., Political Community, 30–31. Ernst Haas similarly argues that “modern nation-states” can be thought of “as communities whose basic consensus is restricted to agreement on the procedure for maintaining order and settling disputes among groups, for carrying out well-understood functions.”Haas, , Beyond the Nation-State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964), 39Google Scholar.

⁷ Norbert Wiener as cited in Deutsch, Karl W., The Nerves of Government (New York: The Free Press, 1966), 77Google Scholar.

⁸ Deutsch, et al. , Political Community, 36Google Scholar.

⁹ This is consistent with Robert Powell's observation that whether states are or are not relative-gains seekers is an effect of the structure. Powell, , “Anarchy in International Relations Theory: The Neorealist-Neoliberal Debate,” International Organization 48 (Spring 1994), 337–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ As exemplified in Nye, Joseph, Peace in Parts: Integration and Conflict in Regional Organization (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971Google Scholar), there was an emerging sense that self-identified regions might organize their relations to promote their self-interests and a sense of collective interest and even perhaps collective identity. See also Haas, Ernst B., The Uniting of Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958Google Scholar) and Leon Lindberg and Stuart Scheingold, eds., Regional Integration: Theory and Research, special issue of International Organization (Vol. 24, Autumn 1970).

¹¹ Deutsch himself concluded that European integration had effectively stopped by 1958. See his , “Integration and Arms Control in the European Political Environment: A Summary Report,” American Political Science Review 60 (June 1966), 354–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹² Most accounts of structure in international relations theory are exhaustively material. See, for instance, Waltz, Kenneth, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979Google Scholar). We, on the other hand, take a structurationist view of the social world as comprising both material and normative elements. See Giddens, Anthony, Constitution of a Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984Google Scholar) and Sewall, William, “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation,” American Journal of Sociology 98 (July 1992), 1–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ The seminal work is, of course, Waltz, Theory of International Politics. Some realists have also stressed the notion that diplomatic prudence may momentarily achieve a truce. See Morgenthau, Hans J., Politics among Nations, 4th. ed. (New York: Knopf, 1968Google Scholar). Yet one influential realist, Reinhold Niebuhr, saw the creation of a world community realized through daily practices and actions rather than through discourse and lofty ideals and imagined that it would come into existence when there was mutual loyalty and trust rather than mutual dependence. See Niebuhr, , The World Crisis and American Responsibility (New York: Association Press, 1950), 80–86Google Scholar.

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¹⁵ The outstanding works are, respectively, Krasner, Stephen, ed., International Regimes (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983Google Scholar), and Bull, Hedley, The Anarchical Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

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²² For overviews see Emanuel Adler, “Seizing the Middle Ground” (unpublished manuscript); Emanuel Adler, “Cognitive Evolution”; Wendt, Alex, “Collective Identity Formation and the International State,” American Political Science Review 88 (June 1994), 384–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wendt, Alex, “Constructing International Politics,” International Security 20 (Summer 1995), 71–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The most accessible introduction to a social constructionist view is Searle's, JohnThe Construction of Social Reality (New York: Free Press, 1995Google Scholar).

²³ On this point see Linklater, Andrew, “The Problem of Community in International Relations Theory,” Alternatives 2 (Spring 1990), 135–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Hurrell, Andrew, “International Society and the Study of Regimes: A Reflective Approach,” in Rittberger, Volker, ed., Regime Theory and International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 61–65Google Scholar.

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³⁴ Deutsch confused the matter by suggesting that peaceful change means avoiding “large-scale physical force.” Deutsch et al., Political Community, 5. That states might engage in “small-scale” physical force or periodically threaten the use of force stretches most understandings of a pluralistic security community. Yet he has a point: a dyad within the community might go to war without necessarily leading the researcher to declare the end of the community; after all, murders occur within communities without necessarily defining their endGoogle Scholar.

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³⁶ Emanuel Adler, “Imagined (Security) Communities: Cognitive Regions in International Relations,”Working Paper on Political Relations and Institutions (Center for German and European Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1995). The sociological literature on communities and networks similarly recognizes that communities need not be tied to physical space but rather are dependent on ties and relations. See Wellman, Carrington, and Hall, “Networks as Personal Communities”Google Scholar.

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⁴⁷ John Hall argues that while “the creation of new social identities by intellectuals—that is, their capacity to link people across space as to form a new community—is necessarily a rare historical phenomenon,” it is one that scholars of international relations need to take seriously. “Ideas and the Social Sciences,” in Goldstein, J. and Keohane, R., eds., Ideas and Foreign Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), 51Google Scholar. Similarly, Iver Neumann claims that identity is inextricably linked to a “region-building approach,” where the existence of regions of common identity are preceded by region-builders who imagine spatial and chronological identities and who, by means of discourse, talk and write these regions into existence within a permissive political context. , “A Region-Building Approach to Northern Europe,” Review of International Studies 20 (1994), 53–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵⁶ Neumann, “A Region-Building Approach to Northern Europe.”Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ Adler, “Seeds of Peaceful Change.”Google Scholar

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