Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-tj2md Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T07:09:59.100Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Perceptions of transformational leadership and job satisfaction: The roles of personality traits and psychological empowerment§

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 December 2016

Ceren Aydogmus ,
Selin Metin Camgoz ,
Azize Ergeneli  and
Ozge Tayfur Ekmekci
Ceren Aydogmus*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Business Administration, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
Selin Metin Camgoz
Affiliation:
Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Science, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
Azize Ergeneli
Affiliation:
Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Science, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
Ozge Tayfur Ekmekci
Affiliation:
Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Science, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: caydogmus@bilkent.edu.tr
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Through two studies, this paper investigates the moderating effects of personality traits (i.e., extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness and neuroticism) and the mediating effect of psychological empowerment on the relationship between perceived transformational leadership and job satisfaction. Study 1 searches whether personality traits moderate the effects of perceived transformational leadership on followers’ job satisfaction. Using a sample of 221 R&D employees employed by information technology organizations, the results of Study 1 indicate that the more conscientious the employee, the stronger the relationship between perceived transformational leadership and job satisfaction. Study 2 explores whether psychological empowerment mediates the effects of perceived transformational leadership on followers’ job satisfaction. Based on data from 348 academics, the results support the mediating role of psychological empowerment on job satisfaction, in that when employees perceive their leader as transformational they feel more psychologically empowered, which in turn increases job satisfaction levels. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Keywords

perceived transformational leadershippersonality traitspsychological empowermentjob satisfaction
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 24 , Issue 1 , January 2018 , pp. 81 - 107
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

§

This manuscript is an original work that has not been submitted to nor published anywhere else. This study probes the underlying mechanism and the processes of how followers’ perceptions of transformational leadership influence job satisfaction, with a focus on followers’ personality traits and psychological empowerment with two different studies. With this aim, we provide follower-based perspective on leadership issues on management and organizations of benefit to scholars, Human Resource practitioners and managers.

References

Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full leadership development: Building vital forces in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. I. (1999). Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72, 441–462.Google Scholar
Avolio, B. J., Zhu, W., Koh, W., & Bhatia, P. (2004). Transformational leadership and organizational commitment: Mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating role of structural distance. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 25, 951–968.Google Scholar
Awamleh, R., & Gardner, W. L. (1999). Perceptions of leader charisma and effectiveness: The effect of vision content, delivery, and organizational performance. Leadership Quarterly, 10(3), 345–373.Google Scholar
Aycan, Z. (2001). Human resource management in Turkey-current issues and future challenges. International Journal of Manpower, 22(3), 252–260.Google Scholar
Aycan, Z., & Kanungo, R. N. (2000). Topolumsal kültürün kurumsal kültür ve insan kaynakları uygulamalari üzerine etkileri [Effects of social culture on organizational culture and human resources practices]. Management, Leadership, and Human Resources Practices in Turkey. Istanbul, Turkey: DETAM.Google Scholar
Aycan, Z., & Fikret-Pasa, S. (2003). Career choices, job selection criteria, and leadership preferences in a transitional nation: The case of Turkey. Journal of Career Development, 30(2), 129–144.Google Scholar
Aycan, Z., Kanungo, R. N., Mendonca, M., Yu, K., Deller, J., Stahl, G., & Khursid, A. (2000). Impact of culture on human resource management practices: A ten country comparison. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49(1), 192–220.Google Scholar
Bartram, T., & Casimir, G. (2006). The relationship between leadership and follower in-role performance and satisfaction with the leader. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 28(1), 4–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and Stogdill’s handbook of leadership. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M. (1995). Comment: Transformational leadership looking at other possible antecedents and consequences. Journal of Management Inquiry, 4(3), 293–298.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M. (1997). Does the transactional–transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries? American Psychologist, 52(2), 130–139.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M. (1999). Two decades of research and development in transformational leadership. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8, 9–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Transformational leadership and organizational culture. The International Journal of Public Administration, 17(3-4), 541–554.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1995). Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire: Manual leader form, rater, and scoring key for MLQ (Form 5x-Short). Redwood City, CA: Mind Garden.Google Scholar
Bilgic, R. (1998). The relationship between job satisfaction and personal characteristics of Turkish workers. The Journal of Psychology, 132(5), 549–557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bitmiş, M. G., & Ergeneli, A. (2011). Contingency approach to strategic management: A test of the mediating effect of leader member exchange on the relationship between psychological empowerment and job satisfaction in 21st century workplace. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 24, 1143–1153.Google Scholar
Bodla, M. A., & Hussain, G. (2010). Followers’ characteristics and leadership styles: An empirical fit among employees of Pakistan. Journal of US-China Public Administration, 7(6), 73–81.Google Scholar
Bogler, R. (2001). The influence of leadership style on teacher job satisfaction. Educational Administration Quarterly, 37(5), 662–683.Google Scholar
Bono, J. E., Hooper, A. C., & Yoon, D. J. (2012). Impact of rater personality on transformational and transactional leadership ratings. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(1), 132–145.Google Scholar
Braun, S., Peus, C., Weisweiler, S., & Frey, D. (2013). Transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and team performance: A multilevel mediation model of trust. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 270–283.Google Scholar
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Bycio, P., Hackett, R. D., & Allen, J. S. (1995). Further assessments of Bass’s (1985) conceptualization of transactional and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 468–478.Google Scholar
Camgoz, S. M., & Karapinar, P. B. (2011). Managing job satisfaction: The mediating effect of procedural fairness. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2(8), 234–243.Google Scholar
Castro, B. C., Villegas, P. M. M., & Casillas, B. J. C. (2008). Transformational leadership and followers’ attitudes: The mediating role of psychological empowerment. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(10), 1842–1863.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christiansen, N., Sliter, M., & Frost, C. T. (2014). What employees dislike about their jobs: Relationship between personality-based fit and work satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 71, 25–29.Google Scholar
Cicero, L., & Pierro, A. (2007). Charismatic leadership and organizational outcomes: The mediating role of employees’ work-group identification. International Journal of Psychology, 42(5), 297–306.Google Scholar
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1998). Charismatic leadership in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Conger, J. A., Kanungo, R. N., & Menon, S. T. (2000). Charismatic leadership and follower effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(7), 747–767.Google Scholar
Connolly, J., & Viswesvaran, C. (2000). The role of affectivity in job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 265–281.Google Scholar
Cooper-Hakim, A., & Viswesvaran, C. (2005). The construct of work commitment: Testing an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 131(2), 241–259.Google Scholar
Çoğaltay, N., Yalcin, M., & Karadağ, E. (2016). Educational leadership and job satisfaction of teachers: A meta-analysis study on the studies published between 2000 and 2016 in Turkey. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 62, 273–298.Google Scholar
DeNeve, K., & Cooper, H. (1998). The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 197–229.Google Scholar
Dust, S. B., Resick, C. J., & Mawritz, M. B. (2014). Transformational leadership, psychological empowerment, and the moderating role of mechanistic–organic contexts. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(3), 413–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dvir, T., & Shamir, B. (2003). Follower developmental characteristics as predicting transformational leadership: A longitudinal field study. Leadership Quarterly, 14, 327–344.Google Scholar
Eden, D. (1992). Leadership and expectations: Pygmalion effects and other self-fulfilling prophecies in organizations. Leadership Quarterly, 3, 271–305.Google Scholar
Ehrhart, M. G., & Klein, K. J. (2001). Predicting followers’ preferences for charismatic leadership: The influence of follower values and personality. The Leadership Quarterly, 12, 153–179.Google Scholar
Epitropaki, O., & Martin, R. (2005). The moderating role of individual differences in the relation between transformational/transactional leadership perceptions and organizational identification. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(4), 569–589.Google Scholar
Ergeneli, A., Gohar, R., & Temirbekova, Z. (2007). Transformational leadership: Its relationship to culture value dimensions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 31(6), 703–724.Google Scholar
Ergeneli, A., Saglam Ari, G., & Metin, S. (2007). Psychological empowerment and its relationship to trust in immediate managers. Journal of Business Research, 60(1), 41–56.Google Scholar
Ettlie, J. E. (1983). Organizational policy and innovation among suppliers to food processing sector. Academy of Management Journal, 26(1), 27–44.Google Scholar
Eylon, D., & Bamberger, P. (2000). Empowerment cognitions and empowerment acts: Recognizing the importance of gender. Group and Organization Management, 25, 354–372.Google Scholar
Felfe, J., & Schyns, B. (2006). Personality and the perception of transformational leadership: The impact of extraversion, neuroticism, personal need for structure, and occupational self-efficacy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 708–739.Google Scholar
Felfe, J., & Schyns, B. (2010). Followers’ personality and the perception of transformational leadership: Further evidence for the similarity hypothesis. British Journal of Management, 21, 393–410.Google Scholar
Fikret-Pasa, S., Kabasakal, H., & Bodur, M. (2001). Society, organizations, and leadership in Turkey. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50(4), 559–589.Google Scholar
Fuller, J. B., Morrison, R., Jones, L., Bridger, D., & Brown, V. (1999). The effects of psychological empowerment on transformational leadership and job satisfaction. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139(3), 389–391.Google Scholar
Furnham, A., Eracleous, A., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2009). Personality, motivation and job satisfaction: Hertzberg meets the big five. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 24(8), 765–779.Google Scholar
Garcia-Morales, V. J., Jiménez-Barrionuevo, M. M., & Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, L. (2012). Transformational leadership influence on organizational performance through organizational learning and innovation. Journal of Business Research, 65(7), 1040–1050.Google Scholar
Gardner, W. L., & Avolio, B. J. (1998). The charismatic relationship: A dramaturgical perspective. Academy of Management Review, 23, 32–58.Google Scholar
Ghanbari, S., & Eskandari, A. (2014). Transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational innovation. International Journal of Management Perspective, 1(4), 81–94.Google Scholar
Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative ‘description of personality’: The Big-Five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216–1229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goregenli, M. (1997). Individualist-collectivist tendencies in a Turkish sample. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28(6), 787–794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gumusluoglu, L., & Ilsev, A. (2009). Transformational leadership, creativity, and organizational innovation. Journal of Business Research, 62, 461–473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gumusluoglu, L., Karakitapoğlu-Aygün, Z., & Hirst, G. (2013). Transformational leadership and R&D workers’ multiple commitments: Do justice and span of control matter? Journal of Business Research, 66(11), 2269–2278.Google Scholar
Gümüşsoy, Ç. A. (2016). The effect of five-factor model of personality traits on turnover intention among information technology (IT) professionals. Academic Journal of Information Technology, 74(22), 7–28.Google Scholar
Gürbüz, S. (2009). The effect of high performance HR practices on employees’ job satisfaction. Istanbul University Journal of the School of Business Administration, 38(2), 110–123.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67(3), 451–470.Google Scholar
Hechanova, M., Alampay, R., & Franco, E. (2006). Psychological empowerment, job satisfaction, and performance among Filipino service workers. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9, 72–78.Google Scholar
Hetland, H., & Sandal, G. (2003). Transformational leadership in Norway: Outcomes and personality correlates. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 12(2), 147–170.Google Scholar
Hetland, H., Sandal, G. M., & Johnsen, T. B. (2008). Followers’ personality and leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 14(4), 322–331.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Howell, J. P., Dorfman, P. W., & Kerr, S. (1986). Moderator variables in leadership research. Academy of Management Review, 11, 88–102.Google Scholar
Hsieh, J. Y. (2013). Impact of individual and organizational factors on job satisfaction: A comparison of multilevel models and multiple regression models using different data arrangements. Journal of Management & Organization, 19(1), 44–59.Google Scholar
Hulin, C. L., & Judge, T. A. (2003). Job attitudes. In W. C. Bornman & D. R. Ilgen (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 255–276). New York: John Wiley & Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurtz, G. M., & Donovan, J. J. (2000). Personality and job performance: The big five revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 869–879.Google Scholar
John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. (1991). The Big Five Inventory – Versions 4a and 54. Berkeley, CA: Institute of Personality and Social Research, University of California.Google Scholar
Joo, B. K. B., & Lim, T. (2013). Transformational leadership and career satisfaction: The mediating role of psychological empowerment. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 20(10), 1–11.Google Scholar
Judge, T. A,., & Bono, J. E. (2000). Five-factor model of personality and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 751–765.Google Scholar
Judge, T. A., Heller, D., & Mount, M. K. (2002). Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 530–541.Google Scholar
Judge, T. A., Scott, B. A., & Ilies, R. (2006). Hostility, job attitudes, and workplace deviance: Test of a multi-level model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 126–138.Google Scholar
Jung, D. I., Chow, C., & Wu, A. (2003). The role of transformational leadership in enhancing organizational innovation: Hypotheses and some preliminary findings. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(4), 525–544.Google Scholar
Jung, D. I., & Sosik, J. J. (2002). Transformational leadership in work groups: The role of empowerment, cohesiveness and collective-efficacy on perceived group performance. Small Group Research, 33(3), 313–336.Google Scholar
Kabasakal, H., & Bodur, M. (1998). Leadership, values and institutions: The case of Turkey. Research papers. Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey.Google Scholar
Kagitcibasi, C. (1996). Family and human development across cultures: A view from the other side. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Ass.Google Scholar
Kark, R., Shamir, B., & Chen, G. (2003). The two faces of transformational leadership: Empowerment and dependency. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 246–255.Google Scholar
Keegan, A. E., & Hartog, D. N. D. (2004). Transformational leadership in a project-based environment: A comparative study of the leadership styles of project managers and line managers. Project Management, 22, 609–617.Google Scholar
Keller, T. (1999). Images of the familiar: Individual differences and implicit leadership theories. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 589–607.Google Scholar
Kerfoot, K. (2001). From motivation to inspiration leadership. Nursing Economics, 19, 242–243.Google Scholar
Kim, H., & Chung, Y. W. (2014). The use of social networking services and their relationship with the big five personality model and job satisfaction in Korea. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 658–663.Google Scholar
Krishnan, V. R. (2012). Transformational leadership and personal outcomes: Empowerment as mediator. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 33(6), 550–563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Locke, E. A. (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 309–336.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., DeVader, C. L., & Alliger, G. M. (1986). A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 402–410.Google Scholar
Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of transformation and transactional leadership: A metaanalytic review of the MLQ literature. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 385–425.Google Scholar
Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., Grob, A., Suh, E. M., & Shao, L. (2000). Cross-cultural evidence for the fundamental features of extraversion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(3), 452–468.Google Scholar
Mardanov, I. T., Heischmidt, K., & Henson, A. (2008). Leader-member exchange and job satisfaction bond and predicted employee turnover. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 15(2), 159–175.Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. (1991). Adding Liebe und Arbeit: The full five-factor model and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 817(2), 227–232.Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52(5), 509–516.Google Scholar
Monzani, L., Ripoll, P., & Silla, J. M. P. (2014). Followers’ agreeableness and extraversion and their loyalty towards authentic leadership. Psicothema, 26(1), 69–75.Google Scholar
Moss, S. A., & Ngu, S. (2006). The relationship between personality and leadership preferences. Current Research in Social Psychology, 11(6), 70–91.Google Scholar
Nielsen, T. M., Hrivnak, G. A., & Shaw, M. (2009). Organizational citizenship behavior and performance: A meta-analysis of group-level research. Small Group Research, 40, 1–23.Google Scholar
Organ, D. W., & Lingl, A. (1995). Personality, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Social Psychology, 135, 339–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ozaralli, N. (2003). Effects of transformational leadership on empowerment and team effectiveness. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 24(6), 335–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pai, A., & Krishnan, V. R. (2015). Can transformational leadership increase the happiness index in organisations through empowerment? Journal of Organisation & Human Behaviour, 2(3), 22–28.Google Scholar
Parmer, L., Green, M., Duncan, P., & Zarate, C. (2013). The relationship between followers’ personality and preferences in leadership. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics, 10(2), 55–64.Google Scholar
Parry, K. W., & Sinha, P. N. (2005). Researching the trainability of transformational organizational leadership. Human Resource Development International, 8(2), 165–183.Google Scholar
Pelit, E., Öztürk, Y., & Arslantürk, Y. (2011). The effects of employee empowerment on employee job satisfaction: A study on hotels in Turkey. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23(6), 784–802.Google Scholar
Piccolo, R. F., & Colquitt, J. A. (2006). Transformational leadership and job behaviors: The mediating role of core job characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 49(2), 327–340.Google Scholar
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.Google Scholar
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1(2), 107–142.Google Scholar
Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531–544.Google Scholar
Qu, R., Janssen, O., & Shi, K. (2015). Transformational leadership and follower creativity: The mediating role of follower relational identification and the moderating role of leader creativity expectations. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(2), 286–299.Google Scholar
Rafferty, A. E., & Griffin, M. A. (2004). Dimensions of transformational leadership: Conceptual and empirical extensions. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(3), 329–354.Google Scholar
Rusting, C. L., & Larsen, R. J. (1997). Extraversion, neuroticism, and susceptibility to positive and negative affect: A test of two theoretical models. Personality and Individual Differences, 22(5), 607–612.Google Scholar
Salgado, J. F. (1997). The five factor model of personality and job performance in the European community. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(1), 30–43.Google Scholar
Schyns, B., & Felfe, J. (2006). The personality of followers and its effect on the perception of leadership an overview, a study, and a research agenda. Small Group Research, 37(5), 522–539.Google Scholar
Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4(4), 577–594.Google Scholar
Slater, R. (2003). 29 Leadership secrets from Jack Welch. New York: McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), 1442–1465.Google Scholar
Sumer, N., Lajunen, T., & Ozkan, T. (2005). Big five personality traits as the distal predictors of road accident involvement. In G. Underwood (Ed.), Traffic and transport psychology (pp. 215–227). Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.Google Scholar
Templer, K. J. (2012). Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: The importance of agreeableness in a tight and collectivistic Asian society. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61(1), 114–129.Google Scholar
Tepper, B. J., & Percy, P. M. (1994). Structural validity of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 734–744.Google Scholar
Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An interpretive model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666–681.Google Scholar
Top, M., Tarcan, M., Tekingündüz, S., & Hikmet, N. (2013). An analysis of relationships among transformational leadership, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational trust in two Turkish hospitals. The International Journal of Health Planning and Management, 28(3), 217–241.Google Scholar
Walumbwa, F. O., & Lawler, J. J. (2003). Building effective organizations: Transformational leadership, collectivist orientation, work-related attitudes, and withdrawal behaviors in three emerging economies. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(7), 1083–1101.Google Scholar
Walumbwa, F. O., Orwa, B., Wang, P., & Lawler, J. J. (2005). Transformational leadership, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction: A comparative study of Kenyan and US financial firms. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16(2), 235–256.Google Scholar
Wang, G., & Lee, P. D. (2009). Psychological empowerment and job satisfaction: An analysis of interactive effects. Group & Organization Management, 34(3), 1–26.Google Scholar
Watson, D., Hubbard, B., & Wiese, D. (2000). General traits of personality and affectivity as predictors of satisfaction in intimate relationships: Evidence from self‐and partner‐ratings. Journal of Personality, 68(3), 413–449.Google Scholar
Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation, University of Minnesota Industrial Relations Center.Google Scholar
Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Staw, Barry M. (Ed); Cummings, L. L. (Ed). Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 1–74.Google Scholar
Winkelmann, L., & Winkelmann, R. (2008). Personality, work, and satisfaction: Evidence from the German socio-economic panel. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 266–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wofford, J. C., Whittington, J. L., & Goodwin, V. L. (2001). Follower motive patterns as situational moderators for transformational leadership effectiveness. Journal of Managerial Issues, 13(2), 196–211.Google Scholar
Yammarino, F. J., Dubinsky, A. J., Comer, L. B., & Jolson, M. A. (1997). Women and transformational and contingent reward leadership: A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 205–222.Google Scholar
Yukl, G. A. (1994). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar